History of Uzbekistan and Central Asia
In the Middle Paleolithic period, from 100, 000 to 35,000 years ago, people in Central Asia were isolated from Europe and elsewhere by ice sheets, seas and swamps. The Homo Sapiens Neanderthals remains found at Aman Kutan cave near Samarkand are dated roughly 100,000 to 40,000 years ago, and are the earliest known human remains In Central Asia.
Central Asia’s recorded history begins in the 6th century B.C., when the large Achemenid Empire of Iran held three provinces beyond the Amu-Darya (Oxus) River: Sogdiana, Khorezm and Saka. Sogdiana was the land between the Amu-Darya River and the Syr-Darya River, called Transoxiana by the Greeks and Movarannahr by the Arabs. Khorezm lay on the lower reaches of the Amu-Darya River south of the Aral Sea. Saka extending indefinitely over the steppes beyond the Syr-Darya River and including the Tian-Shan range was the home of nomadic warriors.
In 330 B.C. Alexander the Great defeated the last Achemenid, Darius III. In 329 he crossed the Amu-Darya River and occupied Central Asia. In 138 B.C. a Chinese general, Chang Chien, came to Fergana wanting to purchase famous Fergana “Heavenly Horses”, which were said to have sweated blood. He found that local merchants were very interested in his clothing made of silk. Parthia was the biggest foreign consumer of Chinese silk at the close of the 2nd century B.C. Rome was the second largest user of silk. In about 105, Parthia and China exchanged embassies and inaugurated official bilateral trade along the caravan route that lay between them. With this the Silk Road was born.
In the 1st century B.C. the Buddhist Kushans (descendants of the Chinese Yue-Zhin tribe) controlled northern India, Afghanistan and Sogdiana from its center in the Ghandara region. At its peak in the first three centuries after Christ, it was one of the four great powers of the world along with Rome, China and Parthia. For a thousand years after the birth of Christ, Central Asia was the scene of pendulum-like shifts of power between the nomadic hordes of the Heartland (South Siberia) and the sedentary civilizations of Eurasia’s periphery. Both sought to profit from Central Asia’s long-distance trade routes. Meanwhile the Turks, namesake of today’s Turkistan, appeared on the scene.
In the 3rd century A.D. Sogdiana was occupied by the Samanids of Iran. They lost possession in the 4th century to the Huns. The Huns were followed by the Turks of Turk Khanate in the 6th century. In the 8th century Arabs came to Central Asia and converted people to Islam. By the 9th century Central Asia had given rise to the peaceable and affluent Samanid Dynasty. By the early 10th century, internal strife at court had weakened the Samanid Dynasty and opened the door for two Turkic tribes to divide up the empire. The Ghaznevids were in Khorasan south of the Amu-Darya River, and the Qarakhanids were in Transoxiana and the steppe region beyond the Syr-Darya River.
In 1219 Jenghiz Khan brought his 200,000 member army and conquered the whole of Central Asia. After his death in 1227 his empire was divided into three parts. Central Asia for the most part was under Chagatay, second son of Jenghiz Khan.
The break-up of the Mongol Empire immediately led to the resurgence of the Turkic people. From one minor tribe near Samarkand rose the leader Great Timur (Tamerlane or Amir Timur).
After assembling an army and wresting Transoxiana from Chagatay rule, Timur went on a spectacular nine year rampage which ended in 1395 with Amir Timur occupying modern-day Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey and the Caucasus. He also despoiled northern India (the founder of India’s Moghul Dynasty, Babur, was his grandson). From 1409 until 1449, Samarkand was governed by the conqueror’s mild, scholarly grandson, Ulugbek. In 1500 Muhammad Sheybani brought the Uzbeks to Central Asia. He defeated the last Timurids and established Uzbek control over most of the territory of Central Asia. In the mid 18th century three Uzbek Dynasties divided the empire into three parts. The Kungrats established Khiva Khanate; the Mangits occupied Bukhara Emirates and the Mings created Kokand Khanate. Meanwhile in the northern territories the Great Horde of the nomad Kazaks ruled.
In 1864 Kokand was occupied by the Russians, in 1865 Tashkent also fell. In 1868 Bukhara was made a protectorate. Khiva Khanate fell in 1873. After a battle in Geok-Tepe in 1881 and occupation of Merv in 1884 the whole of Turkmenistan became Russian territory.
After the Great October Revolution in 1917, five Soviet Republics appeared in Central Asia. In 1924 the Uzbek SSR and Turkmen SSR were established. In 1929 the Tajik SSR came to be and the Kyrgyz and Kazak SSRs were created in 1936. In 1991 all Central Asian countries proclaimed their independence. At the end of 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed.
GREAT SILK ROAD
The Great Silk Road dates from the latter half of the second century B. C. when Chjan Tzyan discovered for the Chinese the Western Land representing the countries of Central Asia. Thus, two great roads were joined into one.. One road, came from western Mediterranean countries to Central Asia, and passed right up to the Yaksart (Syr-Darya River.) It was discovered by ancient Greeks and Macedonians during the campaign of Alexander the Macedonian and the Seleucid commander Demodam. The second road reached from the Khang Empire in the East to Central Asia. Perhaps, right here during long evenings Alexander the Great developed the idea of marrying his commanders to local Sogdian and Baktrian women and in that way, realizing the idea of bringing together the East and West.
The concept of ‘the Great Silk Road’ is of course connected to silk, the precious material that introduced two different worlds – the West and East. In 1877 the German scientist, Ferdinand Richthofen, in his classical work The China first used this term. By this use in his book he named a system of roads connecting various parts of the vast Eurasia continent.
The Silk Road has exerted a great influence upon forming the political, economical, and cultural structure of countries it passed through. Along its routes trading cities, towns and settlements sprang up. Central Asia was crisscrossed with tens of trade routes. People of different ethnic and cultural backgrounds met and interacted. Large-scale trade operations were carried out, diplomatic contracts and military unions were signed. The nations of this region have played a prominent part in the dissemination of writing and world religions. Much culture and many technical achievements come from countries of Inland Asia and the Far East.
The Great Silk Road started from Rome and via the Mediterranean Sea passed to the Syrian city of Hiropolis, and from there by way of Mesopotamia, Northern Iran, and Central Asia it led to oases of Eastern Turkestan and farther to China. The Central Asian section started from Area (Herat) then went north and passed to Margian Antiochia (Merv continued on to Baktria in the southwest, then this road traveled to the north and east).
The northern road crossed the Oxus (Amu-Darya River) near Termez (ancient Tarmita) and then forked in two directions. The first direction, from Termez and Shurob, Chushka-Guzar and Kara-Kamar, where crossings led via Sherabad River’s valley to Iron Gates in Western Gissar at a distance of 8 km from Derbent (Darbant). The main and actually only way for trade caravans and bodies of troops passed through the mountain gates from central areas of Asia to Baktria, Tokharistan and India, and back from India to Baktria, Sogd, Bukhara and Chach.
The other way lied from Tarmita via Surkhandarya valley to land inhabited by Komeds (in Karategin region). Then, reaching the Stone Tower (Alay valley), it passed from Central Asia to Eastern Turkestan. The Central Asian branch of this road had different direction: from Margian Antiochia (ancient Merv) it passed out of Karakum sands crossing the Oxus to Bukhara. From there it led to Marakanda, Chach, Fergana and farther to oases of Eastern Turkestan.
The other fork led from Tarmita via the Surkhandarya valley to land inhabited by Komeds (in the Karategin region). Then, reaching the Stone Tower (Alay valley), this fork passed from Central Asia to Eastern Turkestan. The Central Asian branch of this road had a different direction: from Margian Antiochia (ancient Merv) it passed out of Karakum sands crossing the Oxus River to Bukhara. From there it led to Marakanda, Chach, Fergana and farther to oases of Eastern Turkestan.
The third route of the Great Silk Road, so called the ‘Steppe Road’, passed to the north of Central Asia. It started from cities on the northern coast of the Black Sea and went, via the large old city of Tanais on the lower Don River, then crossed the southern Russian steppes, in the lower Volga River region and went on to the Aral Sea coast. Then by way of southern Kazakhstan this road went out to Altay and Eastern Turkestan where it joined the main route of the Great Silk Road. One of this road’s branches passed via Khorezm to Sogdiana and farther southwards.
The Bukhara/Samarkand route of the Great Silk Road and its regional branches, which finally took shape during the end of the fifth and the beginning of the sixth centuries B.C., were of great significance for the development of economics and the culture of Western Sogd. A new segment of the Great Silk Road which passed along the left-bank of the Zerafshan River was much better and more efficient than the old route using the Upper Amu-Darya River. In the future it became a main road with its own name ‘Shakhrokh’ (‘Main Way’). With the shift of the main route of the Great Silk Road to the Zerafshan valley the epicenter of the whole of Central Asia’s economics and culture progress was shifted here too.
Transcontinental contacts developed the system of self-contained village communities, liberalized the people, and contributed to more intensive development in intellectual areas. Of course, the ancient traders being primarily concerned about profit did not understand the unique phenomena of the contribution the Great Silk Road made to civilization.
However, in Uzbekistan there are monuments dated from much earlier than those of the Great Silk Road’s time. The first human sites are identified in the river valleys of the Baysuntau range, among mountainous forests with plenty of wild fruits and a variety of wild animals. The earliest site is Teshik-Tash grotto in Zautolosh-Say ravine northwest of Baysun that is dated from the middle of the Paleolithic age (100 – 40 thousands years B. C.). During an archeological dig in 1938 a number of stone and ivory implements and the skeleton of a Neanderthal boy were found. This discovery gave rise to the hypothesis that Central Asia was a part of the area of Euhominid. During the end of the Paleolithic age (40 – 12 thousand years B. C.) and the Mesolithic age (12 – 6 thousands year B. C.) the developing of mountain regions continued. Archeological sites of that time have also been recorded in river valleys near Termez and the site of the ancient settlement of Ayrtam. The largest of these sites is the Machay cave in the Upper Sherabad-Darya River between the settlements of Yukari-Machai and Past-Machay. During the archeological digs in 1938-1942 and 1970-1971 numerous implements of stone and ivory were found here.
Well-known religions, such as Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Buddhism, were in existence prior to today’s Islamic period in Uzbekistan. Many researchers adhere to the opinion, that in Chelek (a settlement in the Samarkand region) there was a temple dedicated to the Desi deity whose big statue, according to Chinese sources, was worshipped all over the area from the Western (Caspian) Sea to the East throughout the whole land. The Desi temple was dedicated to Tishtria, the Zoroastrian deity of the morning star.
In 1938 near Urgut the ruins of a cloister were discovered. It was the opinion of archeologists that in this area a Christian settlement had been situated. Right here, south of Urgut, in the Gulbog ravine, a few dozen Syrian ‘graffiti’ inscriptions and images of crosses were found. Arabian geographer, Ibn-Khaukal, had an interesting description of the Christian settlement: ‘Southwards of Samarkand there is Shavdar… On [this] mountain there is a Christian church: the Christians gather here and here are their cells. There I have found many Iranian (Mesopotamian) Christians retired there because of the fertility of the land, its remoteness, and wholesome air. The church permanently is attended by many Christians and possesses real estate: the place holds sway over large part of Sogd, and known under the name Vazgerda.’
From the beginning of the current Era, due to the introduction of Buddhism in Northern Baktria the site of the ancient settlement of Ayrtam (18 km from Termiz), full-scale building of Buddhist religious monuments started. One km from the site of the ancient settlement of Old Termiz, Fayaztepa, a Buddhist complex of temples and monasteries is situated. Fayaztepa was erected in the first century A. D., and had a rectangular shape of 117×34 m. It was oriented from north-west to south-east, and consisted of a temple, a monastery, a refectory and a detached mortar. At the beginning of the ninth century the ruins of Fayaztepa took the form of a hill that hid a treasure of Omeyads and Abbasids, silver dirhams.
The other Buddhist centre, Karatepa, was erected on three hills northwest of the site of the ancient settlement of Old Termez. It represents a number of complexes of temples and monasteries which were built in the beginning of the second century A. D.
At present hundreds of routes exist and operate throughout all continents of the world. However, one of the most interesting and longest anywhere in the world is the Great Silk Road which totaled 12,800 km. This road connected the East with the West during thousands of years like a two-sided river of civilization. In many respects, thanks to the creation of routes along the Great Silk Road the majority of mankind had access to a global heritage of unlimited proportion. Being conscious of its own role as an important section of this road, Uzbekistan has revived the monuments and traditions of past centuries. In this interest tourist facilities are being developed. New hotels are being constructed and old ones are being renovated; the attractive routes are being preserved and improved. And historic sights are being restored.
Now, thanks to our tourist amenities of the Malika Hotels Group, you are able to join the expeditions of traders, missionaries, and geographers of past centuries. During our tours you will be accommodated in comfortable hotels, which replaced medieval caravan-sarays. You can taste refined dishes of our national Uzbek cuisine. Our tourist products will give you the opportunity for a fascinating trip not only through the well-known cities with their history and monuments, but also through the less known places the history of which goes back to Alexander the Macedonian and which would provide an extraordinary adventure.
Cities of Uzbekistan
Chach – Shash – Binkent – Tashkent. Every one of these names is part of the history of the city. Arabic travelers visited this land in the 10th century and called it “the country of a thousand cities”. Tashkent became a city more than 2000 years ago as a part of “The Great Silk Road” – the large ancient network of roads that connect countries of the East and West and their people. Here, Eastern and Western traditions and customs have merged into a single whole, and unique monuments of Medieval Eastern architecture, the Kukeldash and Barak-Khana Madrassahs erected in the 16th century, have been preserved to this day. Today Tashkent is the largest city in Central Asia. It is famous as one of the world centers of science and culture. The collection of the Uzbek Museum of Fine Arts would be an honor to any capital city, while the items of traditional arts and national architecture are displayed at the Museum of Applied Art of Uzbekistan.
In Central Asian history, Samarkand has been known as “The Garden of Eden of the Ancient East”, “Precious pearl of the East Muslim”, “Face of the Earth”, “Jewel of Cities” and “Rome of the East”. It is the city of the Arabian Nights, with dazzling monuments from its classical age. Samarkand has been known to the Western world from the time of Alexander the Great of Macedonia. Alexander rested here during his great march, and married Roxane, the daughter of the king Maracanda. The most prosperous period of Samarkand’s history began with the reign of Amir Temur, named Tamerlane in the West. This period witnessed the birth of a true Uzbek nation. It was during that time when numerous monuments were built in the Samarkand Valley leaving a legacy of amazing architecture.
Bukhara was a great seat of learning during various Muslim eras. The history of Bukhara more than 2000 years old can be traced from the early Zoroastrian period, down to the early Arab invasions. Its numerous old buildings, forts and mausoleums reflect a rich cultural heritage. Architecture of various periods is visible, by seeing the earliest ruins of the city walls. The impressive Kalyan Minaret (XI c.) and Madrassah, the unique mausoleum of Ismail Samani (IX-X cc.), the Ark fortress, the Mazare Nagsh Bundy (XIV c.), the Madrassah of Mir Arab (XVI c.), and the Sitora Mokhi Khosa – the summer palace of the last Emir of Bukhara, are a few of the fascinating sites in and around Bukhara, that the traveler should not miss.
A living museum, Khiva, is the city richest in monuments of the once powerful Khanate of Khorezm. Khiva consists of a huge network of buildings in brick and tile work. It is the best preserved among the Central Asian cities. Inchan Kola, a big complex of magnificent buildings embodies the concept of Khiva, with impressive buildings like Kalta Minor, Madrassah Amin Khan, Kunya Ark, Devon Begi, Juma Masjid, and Abdullah Khan Madrassah and minaret. Juma Mosque is situated in the centre of Inchan Kola. It is one of the most ancient buildings of Central Asia. Beautifully carved wood columns decorated with original patterns are well preserved to this day. 101 steps of a spiral staircase lead to the top of the Islam Khoja Minaret which reaches to a clear blue sky. Khiva is an excellent museum in the open air whose antiquity and beauty can only be compared with the antiquity and the beauty of Ancient Greece.
Shakhrisabz the birthplace of Amir Timur (Tamerlane) was also the home town of Central Asia’s foremost conqueror and was the Sogdian town called Kesh when Chinese Buddhist traveler Xuan Zang passed through in the early seventh century. The inner town was surrounded by high walls and a deep moat, crossed by a drawbridge. The family cemetery was enlarged and, towering on a scale all its own, Tamerlane’s White Palace took shape. Though Tamerlane’s dynasty would crumble like the buildings he commissioned, Kesh took from its golden age a new designation, Shakhrisabz, Green Town, after the spring lushness of its many gardens. Though Tamerlane built lavish mausoleums for his relatives, in Shakhrisabz he made himself but a simple crypt and, with his last breath, requested: “only a stone, and my name upon it.’” Instead he lies beneath Samarkand’s sumptuous Gur Emir and a giant slab of jade. His wish for simplicity is fulfilled only at his birthplace, Khodja Ilgar village, 13 kilometers (8 miles) south of Shakhrisabz, where a small brick kern quietly marks the entrance of the Terror of the World.
Termez has played the role of political and cultural chameleon, switching roles, religions, allegiances and even locations with the consummate ease of a circus performer. Gather its faded stars under one roof and sit back and enjoy as Buddhist monks discuss philosophy with Mongol invaders, Greek garrison guards ogle Soviet tanks and Bactrian Silk Road traders talk shop with modern Afghan entrepreneurs. Bridges become borders which become bridges again, heartlands fade to backwaters and cosmopolitan Silk Road junctions shrivel into a forgotten corner of a neglected republic. For the last 80 years Termez has been one of the furthest and most sensitively sealed outposts of the Soviet empire, enforcing an unnatural religious cutoff point between Islam and atheism. The modern traveler who comes to taste the sheer variety of its of excitement that comes from such proximity to the Oxus and Afghan border can rest assured that he is one of the first.
The Ferghana Valley is The Motherland of Uzbekistan. What today looks like a sleepy broad plane bordered by the Western Tien Shan Mountains, was once a busy thoroughfare with China extending its influence time and time again over these fertile lands. The Valley was discovered by a Chinese envoy on a mission to find allies against the aggressive Xiongnus (Mongols). Instead, tales of wonderful horses, much sturdier than those known to the Chinese, were brought home. The Ferghana Valley should be included in any visit to Uzbekistan. The towns and villages of the valley still cast a spell of an untouched Central Asia. This is where many customs and traditions are strongly preserved, where the greatest silk weaving masters produce cloth of incredible beauty, using techniques and secrets transmitted over many generations. Kokand glass and paper were world famous.
Ferghana City was planned and constructed as a Russian military stronghold and administrative center of Turkestan, with the typical street layout of the time. Originally called Scobelev in honor of its governor the city was renamed Ferghana in 1919. 10,000 trees were planted and tree lined streets, avenues and boulevards give the city its nickname “green town”. Protected from harsh winds by the Chatgal and Kuramin mountain ranges, Ferghana’s mild climate is famous. The sweetest melons and the best grapes for excellent wine are grown here.
Kokand is situated at the western entrance of the valley, now accessible on a nearly completed excellent fast road over the mountains. Today a quaint little town with architectural buildings ranging from Russian Rococo and Classicism to Islamic Medresas and of course the Palace, Kokand used to be the center of a large empire under the last Khan, Khudayar. Today the charm of olden days is still preserved and Kokand offers a number of interesting and unique museums that give the visitor insight into the life led by the valley’s inhabitants not too long ago. A great number of intellectuals, artists, writers and political figures who have shaped the recent history of Uzbekistan are from Kokand. These include Mukimi, Furkat, Hamza Khakim-Zade Niazi. Kokand is known as of the tenth century. Destroyed by Ghengiz Khan’s army, in the eighth century it was rebuilt as a stronghold and developed into an administrative and cultural center, calling many famous crafts masters its own. A whole chapter could be dedicated to Kokand’s role in resisting Russian occupation and its dedication to Islam. The Ferghana and Kokand museums provide excellent displays depicting the major historical facts and figures.
Kuva is one of the oldest settlements in the Fergana Valley. All that has come down to us from its remote past are ruins of palaces, fortress walls and ruins of an ancient Buddhist temple from the ninth century B.C. Today Kuva is one of the cities that should be visited in the Fergana region. Set amidst orchards and vineyards, it is famous for its unsurpassed pomegranates.
Shakhimardan, the mountain resort near the Kyrgyz border is referred to as the Switzerland of Central Asia. Forests and lakes plus tourist accommodations provide an excellent opportunity for a rest or a hike. This is also where the democrat and poet Hamza spent his last years, writing some of his most evocative works. A visit to his home museum should not be left out.
